Espinosa JA, Case R, Kosnik LK. Emergency department structure and operations. Emergency Medicine Clinics of North America. 2004;22(1):73-85.

This article explores some of the tools and technologies available in operations management in health care and in emergency medicine. Various theories are noted, but the intent of this article is to be eclectic so as to give the reader a feel for the rich variety of approaches available.

Edmonds MI, O’Connor HM. The use of computer simulations as a strategic decision-making tool: A case study of an emergency department application. Healthcare Management Forum. 1999;12(3):32-38.

Computer simulation offers the benefit of constructing and analyzing multiple "what if" scenarios without disrupting patient care or incurring significant cost. This article describes the successful use of computer simulation in the evaluation of multiple restructuring options in the emergency departments of a health sciences center.

Bursch B, Beezy J, Shaw R. Emergency department satisfaction: What matters most? Annals of Emergency Medicine. 1993;22(3):586-591.

This article describes a study whose purpose was to determine the relative importance of variables correlated with patient satisfaction with emergency department care and service.

Boudreaux ED, O'Hea EL. Patient satisfaction in the emergency department: A review of the literature and implications for practice. Journal of Emergency Medicine. 2004;26(1):13-26.

This article reviews the empirical literature on patient satisfaction in the emergency department. It explores the implications for clinical practice, discusses limitations and weaknesses of the literature, and provides direction for future research.

Bazarian JJ, Schneider SM, Newman VJ, Chodosh J. Do admitted patients held in the emergency department impair throughput of treat-and-release patients? Academic Emergency Medicine. 1996;3(12):1113-1118.

This article describes a study that examined the impact of reducing emergency department (ED) "boarders" (through the use of a short-stay inpatient medicine unit) on the amount of time that treat-and-release patients spend in the ED.

Asplin BR, Magid DJ, Rhodes KV, Solberg LI, Lurie N, Camargo CA. A conceptual model of emergency department crowding. Annals of Emergency Medicine. 2003;42(2):173-180.

Emergency department (ED) crowding has become a major barrier to receiving timely emergency care in the United States. The authors present a conceptual model of ED crowding to help researchers, administrators, and policymakers understand its causes and develop potential solutions.

Jensen K, Mayer TA, Welch S, Haraden C
Chicago, Illinois: Health Administration Press with the Institute for Healthcare Improvement; 2007

This book provides the inspiration, information, and ideas you need to lead patient flow improvement efforts at your organization. You will learn from the successes and failures of the authors — health care leaders who have played pivotal roles in patient flow improvement projects. The fundamentals of patient flow are explained and a solid business case for pursuing improvement efforts is provided. Real-life examples explain common patient flow theories and improvement methods. The heart of the book focuses on the practical information and leadership techniques needed to foster change and remove the barriers to smooth patient flow.

Walley P, Silvester K, Steyn R. Managing variation in demand: Lessons from the UK National Health Service. Journal of Healthcare Management. Sep 2006;51(5):309-322.

The UK National Health Service (NHS) provides a prime example of a system that has experienced the consequences of not managing variation in demand and what impact this has on health care processes, having suffered from excessive waits for a prolonged period. The authors discuss important lessons that have emerged from collaborative work to manage variation in the NHS, including understanding and measurement of demand, capacity planning, segmentation and streaming of work, process design, capacity yield management, and measurement of variation.

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Committee on the Future of Emergency Care in the United States Health System, Institute of Medicine
Washington, DC, USA: National Academies Press; 2006

In June 2006, the Institute of Medicine (IOM) released this report that describes the development of emergency medical services (EMS) systems in the US and the fragmented system that exists today. The report covers numerous topics, including: the role of EMS as a part of the overall health care system; preparedness and coordination at the federal, state, and local levels; funding and infrastructure investments; workforce trends and professional education; and research priorities and funding. By addressing the strengths, limitations, and future challenges of EMS, this report presents recommendations for improving the future of emergency medical services in the US.

Committee on the Future of Emergency Care in the United States Health System, Institute of Medicine
Washington, DC, USA: National Academies Press; 2006

In June 2006, the Institute of Medicine (IOM) released this report that explores the changing role of the hospital emergency department in the US and describes the national epidemic of overcrowded emergency departments (EDs) and trauma centers. The report covers numerous topics, including: the role and impact of the ED within the larger hospital and health care system; overcrowding, boarding, and ambulance diversions; patient flow and information technology; workforce issues across multiple disciplines; patient safety and the quality and efficiency of emergency care services; clinical and health services research relevant to emergency care; and the special challenges of emergency care in rural settings. A vision for the future of emergency care in the US is presented with recommendations on how to achieve that vision.