Smith-Elekes S, Weinstein MP. Blood cultures. Infectious Disease Clinics of North America. 1993;7:221–234.

This article summarizes principles and techniques of blood culturing to optimize laboratory detection of bacteremia and fungemia.

Leibovici L, Greenshtain S, Cohen O, et al. Bacteremia in febrile patients: A clinical model for diagnosis. Archives of Internal Medicine. 1991;151:1801–1806.

This study compared the accuracy of a five-variable logistical model in diagnosing bacteremia within 24 hours of hospital admission to the accuracy of attending physicians, and found that the logistical model can help improve diagnostic accuracy.   

Bates DW, Sands K, Miller E, et al. Predicting bacteremia in patients with sepsis syndrome. Journal of Infectious Diseases. 1997;176:1538–1551.

This article reports on clinical prediction guidelines for bacterial bloodstream infection in patients with sepsis.

Mermel LA, Maki DG. Detection of bacteremia in adults: Consequences of culturing an inadequate volume of blood. Annals of Internal Medicine. 1993;119:270–272.

This study found that blood cultures meeting standard volume guidelines achieved a higher rate of detection for bloodstream infection than did lower-volume blood cultures. The authors recommend routine monitoring of blood draw volume for quality assurance.

Blot F, Schmidt E, Nitenberg G, et al. Earlier positivity of central venous versus peripheral blood cultures is highly predictive of catheter-related sepsis. Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 1998;36:105–109.

This retroactive study suggests that measuring the differential positivity times of blood cultures drawn simultaneously from central venous catheter and peripheral sites can facilitate the diagnosis of catheter-related sepsis in patients with an indwelling catheter.

Weinstein MP, Reller LP, Murphy JR, et al. The clinical significance of positive blood cultures: A comprehensive analysis of 500 episodes of bacteremia and fungemia in adults. I. Laboratory and epidemiologic observations. Reviews of Infectious Diseases. 1983;5:35–53.

This article presents a retrospective review of 500 cases of septicemia, with analysis of laboratory and epidemiologic findings such as speciation, type of service the patient was on (medical, surgical, ob/gyn, or transplant), incidence of nosocomial infection, primary source of bacteremia, and differences in speciation in neutropenic and non-neutropenic patients.

Vincent JL, Gerlach H. Fluid resuscitation in severe sepsis and septic shock: An evidence-based review. Critical Care Medicine. 2004;32(11):(Suppl.)S451-S454.

This systematic review of the literature issues recommendations for fluid resuscitation of severe sepsis.

Bakker J, Coffernils M, Leon M, et al. Blood lactate levels are superior to oxygen derived variables in predicting outcome in human septic shock. Chest. 1991;99:956–962.

This article finds that blood lactate levels are better guides to therapy, and better predictors of patient outcome, in septic shock than oxygen-derived variables.

Friedman G, Berlot G, Kahn RJ, et al. Combined measurements of blood lactate concentrations and gastric intramucosal pH in patients with severe sepsis. Critical Care Medicine. 1995;23:1184–1193.

This prospective, noninterventional study found that a combination of blood lactate concentrations and intramucosal pH or intramural PCO2 assessments can help predict patient outcomes in severe sepsis.

Vincent JL, Dufaye P, Berre J, et al. Serial lactate determinations during circulatory shock. Critical Care Medicine. 1983;11:449–451.

This article reports findings of a prospective study of the time course of lactacidemia. Study results suggest that repeated assessments of lactate concentration are an important predictor of response to therapy.