Norris SL, Engelgau MM, Narayan KM. Effectiveness of self-management training in type 2 diabetes: A systematic review of randomized controlled trials. Diabetes Care. 2001;24(3):561-587.

This article presents evidence that supports the effectiveness of self-management training in type 2 diabetes, particularly in the short term.

Vijan S, Hofer TP, Hayward RA. Cost-utility analysis of screening intervals for diabetic retinopathy in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Journal of the American Medical Association. 2000;283(7):889-896.

These three studies all suggest that patients whose last retinal exam was normal are at very low risk of needing laser therapy within the following 3 years, suggesting that every 2-3 years eye screening for those with previous normal retinal examinations may be more than adequate.

Stratton IM, Kohner EM, Aldington JS, Turner RC, Holman RR, Manley SE, Matthews DR. UKPDS 50: Risk factors for incidence and progression of retinopathy in Type II diabetes over 6 years from diagnosis. Diabetologia. 2001;44:156-163.

The findings re-emphasise the need for good glycaemic control and assiduous treatment of hypertension if diabetic retinopathy is to be minimized.

Weinberger M, Kirkman MS, Samsa GP, et al. A nurse-coordinated intervention for primary care patients with non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus: Impact on glycemic control and health-related quality of life. Journal of General Internal Medicine. 1995;10:59-66.

This study demonstrates a pragmatic, low-intensity adjunct to care delivered by physicians that improved glycemic control.

Olivarius N, Beck-Nielsen H, Andreasen A, Horder M, Pedersen P. Randomized controlled trial of structured personal care of type 2 diabetes mellitus. British Medical Journal. 2001;323(7319):970-975.

Individualized goals with educational and surveillance support may for at least six years bring risk factors of patients with type 2 diabetes to a level that has been shown to reduce diabetic complications but without weight gain.

Wagner EH. Population-based management of diabetes care. Patient Education and Counseling. 1995;26:225-230.

This article provides an overview of the steps involved in population-based care.

Gohdes D, Rith-Najarian S, Acot K, Shields R. Improving diabetes care in the primary health setting: The Indian Health Service experience. Annals of Internal Medicine. 1996;124(1 Pt 2):149-152.

The Indian Health Service provides a model of using standards and feedback to improve care of patients with diabetes.

Piette JD, Weinberger M, Kraemer FB, McPhee SJ. Impact of automated calls with nurse follow-up on diabetes treatment outcomes in a Department of Veterans Affairs Health Care System: A randomized controlled trial. Diabetes Care. 2001;24(2):202-208.

Intervention uses automated calls technology to improve the efficiency of phone follow-up.

Friedman NM, Gleeson JM, Kent MJ, Foris MF, Rodriguez DJ. Management of diabetes mellitus in the Lovelace Health Systems; EPISODES OF CARE program. Effective Clinical Practice. 1998;1:5-11.

This article describes the comprehensive diabetes program used in a managed care setting that resulted in improved diabetes care.

Aubert R, Herman W, Waters J, et al. A randomized controlled trial of nurse case management within an HMO to improve glycemic control in patients with diabetes. Annals of Internal Medicine. 1998;129(8):605-612.

This trial found using care managers within a primary care setting significantly improved glycemic control, although high rate of subjects lost to follow-up in the care management group raises the possibility that the study may over-estimate the amount of benefit.